What is CBDC, or Central Bank Digital Currency

What Is a CBDC?

Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) are digital currencies issued and regulated by central banks, often referred to as national cryptocurrencies. They are official digital counterparts to sovereign fiat currencies, with issuance and oversight handled by a country’s central bank. Instead of traditional dollars, euros, or rubles, a government can issue a full-fledged digital version that retains all the attributes of legal tender.

Experts at the Bank of Russia and international financial analysts believe that central bank digital currencies combine the advantages of traditional fiat with those of modern electronic money, creating an entirely new tool for monetary policy.

CBDC Functions

There are several primary scenarios for issuing and using a national digital currency, each with distinct features and implications for the financial system:

1. CBDC as a Cash Substitute. In this scenario, users transition gradually from traditional paper money and coins to a more convenient and functional digital alternative. This preserves the core features of cash while adding the benefits of digital technology: instant transfers, remote payments, and enhanced security for funds.

2. CBDC as a Replacement for Existing Payment Systems. This approach makes paying for goods and services far more convenient, faster, and less expensive by removing intermediaries. However, it also greatly expands the central bank’s role in the payments market, potentially altering competition within the financial sector.

3. CBDC as a Substitute for Bank Deposits. In this most radical scenario, individuals can store funds directly in a central bank digital currency, bypassing commercial banks entirely. This would prompt deep structural changes to monetary policy and the banking system, including shifts in lending and liquidity management mechanisms.

How CBDCs Differ from Fiat

Like traditional fiat, a CBDC is issued by a country’s central bank, ensuring state backing and legal tender status. However, unlike physical fiat, all CBDC transactions take place in digital form, opening up new possibilities for monetary management.

Key advantages of CBDCs over traditional fiat:

• Reduced Operating Costs – No need for printing, transporting, or storing cash, significantly lowering financial system expenses
• Faster Transactions – Transfers happen almost instantly, eliminating delays common with traditional bank payments
• Improved Payment System Quality – Full process automation reduces human error
• Greater Transparency – Regulators gain clearer oversight of money circulation while user privacy is preserved
• Financial Inclusion – Enables financial services for those without access to traditional banking infrastructure

How CBDCs Differ from Decentralized Cryptocurrencies

The core distinction is the model of control and oversight. A CBDC is issued by a central bank, which maintains full authority over issuance, circulation, and usage rules. CBDCs are centralized systems, with a single regulatory body making decisions and governing the system.

Decentralized cryptocurrencies—like Bitcoin and Ethereum—operate on completely different principles. They are outside the direct control of financial regulators and governments. Central banks cannot influence the issuance, distribution, or use of these digital assets. Instead, decentralized cryptocurrencies are managed by a distributed network of participants, with decisions made by consensus.

Additionally, CBDCs hold legal tender status and are backed by government guarantees, while decentralized cryptocurrencies lack this recognition in most jurisdictions.

CBDC Security

Central bank digital currencies are considered significantly more secure than traditional fiat for several reasons. Advanced cryptography makes counterfeiting nearly impossible. Every transaction is recorded, making it more difficult to use funds in illicit activities or money laundering schemes.

If the CBDC uses blockchain or distributed ledger technology, its security is exceptionally high due to cryptographic encryption and distributed data storage. However, fully centralized CBDC systems may be more vulnerable to threats such as hacking attacks on central servers or system failures.

Ultimately, CBDC security also relies on the quality of technical implementation, the level of cybersecurity, and the central bank’s operational competence.

Which Countries Are Developing CBDCs?

In recent years, global interest in national digital currencies has surged. Many countries are exploring CBDC adoption, running pilot projects, and drafting regulatory frameworks. More than 60 central banks worldwide are researching or developing their own digital currencies at various stages.

European Developments

The European Union is investing heavily in a digital euro. The European Central Bank is actively studying CBDC issuance and has tested multiple technology solutions. The Bank of France was among the early pioneers of digital currency experiments in Europe.

In addition to pan-European initiatives, individual EU countries are pursuing their own research. Sweden, for example, is developing the e-krona in response to a rapid decline in cash use. These efforts aim to ensure access to central bank money in the digital era.

China Leads the CBDC Race

The People’s Republic of China is a world leader in CBDC development and deployment. The official project is called DCEP (Digital Currency Electronic Payment), which stands for "Digital Currency – Electronic Payment."

For large-scale rollout, the People’s Bank of China engaged the country’s four biggest state-owned banks:

1. Agricultural Bank of China
2. Industrial and Commercial Bank of China
3. Bank of China
4. China Construction Bank

These institutions operate the system and distribute the digital yuan to individuals and businesses.

How the Chinese Digital Currency Works

The DCEP system is designed to balance government oversight with user privacy. All transaction data is encrypted, protecting it from unauthorized access.

Users of the digital yuan retain a certain level of anonymity for their transactions. The concept of "controllable anonymity" allows regulators to monitor suspicious activity while keeping ordinary payments private.

The digital yuan can even be used offline via NFC technology, making it a convenient payment option in any environment.

China–US Competition

Global analysts believe the first country to successfully implement a fully functional national digital currency will gain substantial competitive advantages and could become a technological leader in digital finance.

State-supported digital assets make cross-border settlements faster, cheaper, and more transparent. With its national digital currency, China could offer trading partners more attractive terms than traditional dollar settlements, potentially shifting the global balance of economic power.

This is fueling geopolitical competition in digital currencies, where technological leadership can translate into economic and political influence.

US Search for Alternatives

The United States is closely monitoring CBDC initiatives abroad and considering the need for its own digital currency. Initially, Meta’s Libra project (later renamed Diem) was considered, but it was ultimately seen as too risky from a regulatory standpoint.

Instead, a dedicated fund was created to research and develop a digital dollar. The US Federal Reserve is conducting comprehensive studies of potential CBDC models and evaluating their implications for the financial system, monetary policy, and privacy.

Russia’s Stance on CBDCs

The Bank of Russia’s experts take a cautious approach to launching a national digital currency. According to the regulator’s current official position, Russia does not see an urgent need for a classic CBDC at this stage of its financial system’s development.

As an alternative, the Central Bank proposes modernizing and strengthening existing fiat money by adding digital features and services. An example is the rapid growth of the Faster Payments System (FPS), which enables instant transfers between accounts at different banks.

Nevertheless, the Bank of Russia continues to monitor global CBDC trends and technological progress, and may reconsider its position if economic or technological conditions change in the future.

Key Takeaways

• CBDCs differ fundamentally from decentralized cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin, offering a high degree of centralization and government control by central banks.
• Digital currencies deliver faster transactions, cost efficiencies, and enhanced security compared to traditional fiat.
• Central bank digital currencies can be designed to address user privacy requirements, balancing confidentiality with regulatory oversight.
• Transitioning citizens to a national digital currency streamlines central bank control over monetary circulation, financial flow tracking, and anti-illegal activity efforts.
• CBDCs offer multiple use cases—from replacing cash to transforming the deposit system. The chosen implementation model directly determines the extent and nature of its impact on monetary policy and the financial system’s structure.

FAQ

What is a CBDC (Central Bank Digital Currency) and how does it differ from traditional paper currency?

A CBDC is a digital form of money issued by a central bank. Unlike paper currency, it exists only in electronic form and is managed directly by the central bank. CBDCs are more stable than cryptocurrencies and accelerate payments, especially cross-border transfers.

How are CBDCs different from cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin and Ethereum?

A CBDC is a central bank digital currency, pegged to fiat and stable. Bitcoin and Ethereum are volatile and driven by market demand. CBDCs are intended for everyday transactions; cryptocurrencies are primarily used for investment and speculation.

What are the main advantages of CBDCs? Why are central banks developing CBDCs?

CBDCs make payments more efficient and reduce transaction costs. Central banks are developing CBDCs to modernize financial systems and maintain economic competitiveness in the digital era.

Which countries have launched or are testing CBDCs? How is progress unfolding?

The Bahamas, Uruguay, Ecuador, Venezuela, Thailand, and Cambodia have all launched or are piloting CBDCs. The EU and US are in early development stages. Emerging markets are actively rolling out retail CBDCs.

What effect will CBDCs have on daily life for ordinary people?

CBDCs primarily affect financial institutions rather than individuals’ day-to-day lives. Wholesale CBDCs are designed to replace interbank settlement systems, with minimal direct impact on consumers. Future retail CBDCs may enable faster payment experiences.

What security and privacy issues do CBDCs face?

CBDCs face challenges around data tracking and the risk of compromising user information. It is essential to balance transparency with privacy using advanced cryptographic technologies.

How is a CBDC different from current digital payment systems (like Alipay and WeChat Pay)?

A CBDC is a digital currency issued by the central bank, backed by the government, and holds official legal tender status. Alipay and WeChat Pay are third-party services; a CBDC provides direct access to the money supply, greater security, eliminates intermediaries, and guarantees state backing.

What impact will CBDC adoption have on the banking and financial system?

CBDCs will enhance financial stability, reduce risks, boost payment transparency, and diminish the role of traditional banks. This shift will accelerate financial digitalization and create new opportunities for central banks’ monetary policy.